Patricia Dobson
BIOGRAPHY
Patricia Dobson is a contemporary artist who was born in Sacramento, California in 1947 and who now lives in Scottsdale, Arizona. Her interest in art and history goes back to her childhood, but she instead chose a medical career and started a family. It wasn’t until she was 28-years-old that she decided to forego medicine and plunged into the world of the professional artist. She has been an artist now since 1975 and focuses her work on the painting and photographing of Native American Art.
[hO'pE]
Hopi , group of the Pueblo
Pueblo
Pueblo,
name given by the Spanish to the sedentary Native Americans who lived in stone
or adobe communal houses in what is now the SW United States. The term pueblo
is also used for the villages occupied by the Pueblo. Their prehistoric
settlements, known as the Anasazi and Mogollon cultures, extended southward from
S Utah and S Colorado into Arizona, New Mexico, and adjacent territory in
Mexico. The transition from Archaic hunters and gatherers to sedentary
agricultural populations occurred around the 1st cent. A.D.,
when corn, squash, and beans were widely adopted; the trio of foods is still
used by the Pueblo. Although agriculture provided the bulk of the diet for these
early populations, hunting and gathering was an important source of additional
foodstuffs. Pottery manufacture began about A.D.
400 and was used for cooking and water storage. Clothing was woven from cotton,
grown in warmer areas, and yucca fiber. Early houses among the Anasazi and
Mogollon were pit houses, which were replaced by adobe and stone surface
dwellings throughout the region by the end of the first millennium A.D.
Villages
were variable in size and architectural content, but most included circular,
often subterranean structures known as kivas
(apparently a derivation of the pit house) and storage pits for grains. Prior to
the 14th and 15th cent., densely settled villages were more the exception than
the rule. Large pueblos were found at Chaco Canyon, dating to the 11th and early
12th cent., and at Mesa Verde, where multistoried cliff houses were inhabited in
the 13th and 14th cent. Changing climatic conditions forced the abandonment of
much of the region by the early 14th cent., with populations migrating to their
present-day locations in the Rio Grande valley and a few other isolated areas
(e.g., the Hope mesas).
They
speak the Hopi language, which belongs to the Uto-Aztecan branch of the
Aztec-Tanoan linguistic stock, at all their pueblos except Hano, where the
language belongs to the Tanoan branch of the Aztec-Tanoan linguistic stock.
They occupy several mesa villages in NE Arizona and in 1990 numbered
close to 12,000.
In
1540, they were visited by some of Francisco Coronado's men under Pedro de Tovar,
but because of their geographical isolation they remained more independent of
European influence than other Pueblo groups. The Spanish began to establish
missions in 1629 at the Hopi pueblos of Awatobi, Oraibi, and Shongopovi. These
missions were destroyed in the revolt of 1680, and when the residents of Awatobi
invited the missionaries to return, the other Hopi destroyed their village.
After the revolt, pueblos in the foothills were abandoned and new villages were
built on the mesas for defense against possible attack by the Spanish. The
pueblo of Hano was built by the Tewa, who had fled from the area of the Rio
Grande valley that the Spanish reconquered.
During
the 18th and 19th cent., the Hopi were subjected to frequent raids by the
neighboring Navajo. The region was pacified by the U.S. army in the late 19th
cent., and a Hopi reservation was established in 1882, but the ambiguous status
of much of the reservation enabled Navajo populations to encroach on traditional
Hopi lands. By the 1960s and 70s, Navajo expansion on lands set aside for joint
use provoked court action and led to a partition of the disputed land. Amid
bitter conflict, over 10,000 Navajo and fewer than 100 Hopi were relocated from
the partitioned lands. A court decision
in 1992 assigned most of the land still in dispute to the Navajo. Some Navajo
were permitted to remain on Hopi land under 75-year leases.
The
Hopi are sedentary farmers, mainly dependent on corn, beans, and squash; they
also raise wheat, cotton, and tobacco, and herd sheep. Each village is divided
into clans and is governed by a chief, who is also the spiritual leader.
Political and religious duties revolve around the clans. The Badger clan, for
instance, still conducts the Kachina (fertility) ceremony, and the Antelope and
Snake clans perform the well-known snake dance at Walpi and other pueblos. A
Hopi tribal council and constitution were established in 1936, but internal
dissension has limited tribal unity.
See J. Kammer, The Second Long Walk (1980); S. Rushforth and S. Upham, A Hopi Social History (1992).
ERIC
Identifier:
ED394744
Publication Date: 1996-05-00
Author: Reese, Debbie
Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on
Elementary and Early Childhood Education Urbana IL.
Teaching
Young Children about Native Americans
ERIC Digest
THIS
DIGEST WAS CREATED BY ERIC, THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER. FOR
MORE INFORMATION ABOUT ERIC, CONTACT ACCESS ERIC 1-800-LET-ERIC
Young
children's conceptions of Native Americans often develop out of media portrayals
and classroom role playing of the events of the First Thanksgiving. The
conception of Native Americans gained from such early exposure is both
inaccurate and potentially damaging to others. For example, a visitor to a child
care center heard a four-year-old saying, "Indians aren't people. They're
all dead." This child had already acquired an inaccurate view of Native
Americans, even though her classmates were children of many cultures, including
a Native American child. Derman-Sparks (1989) asserts that by failing to
challenge existing biases we allow children to adopt attitudes based on
inaccuracies. Her book is a guide for developing curriculum materials that
reflect cultural diversity. This digest seeks to build on this effort by
focusing on teaching children in early childhood classrooms about Native
Americans. Note that this digest, though it uses the term "Native
American," recognizes and respects the common use of the term
"American Indian" to describe the indigenous people of North America.
While it is most accurate to use the tribal name when speaking of a specific
tribe, there is no definitive preference for the use of "Native
American" or "American Indian" among tribes or in the general
literature.
STEREOTYPES
CHILDREN SEE
Most
young children are familiar with stereotypes of the Native American. Stereotypes
are perpetuated by television, movies, and children's literature when they
depict Native Americans negatively, as uncivilized, simple, superstitious,
blood-thirsty savages, or positively, as romanticized heroes living in harmony
with nature (Grant & Gillespie, 1992). The Disney Company presents both
images in its films for children. For example, in the film PETER PAN, Princess
Tiger Lily's father represents the negative stereotype as he holds Wendy's
brothers hostage, while in the film POCAHONTAS, Pocahontas represents the
positive stereotype who respects the earth and communicates with the trees and
animals.
Many
popular children's authors unwittingly perpetuate stereotypes. Richard Scarry's
books frequently contain illustrations of animals dressed in buckskin and
feathers, while Mercer Mayer's alphabet book includes an alligator dressed as an
Indian. Both authors present a dehumanized image, in which anyone or anything
can become Native American simply by putting on certain clothes. TEN LITTLE
RABBITS, although beautifully illustrated, dehumanizes Native Americans by
turning them into objects for counting. BROTHER EAGLE, SISTER SKY (Harris, 1993)
contains a speech delivered by Chief Seattle of the Squamish tribe in the
northwestern United States. However, Susan Jeffers' illustrations are of the
Plains Indians, and include fringed buckskin clothes and teepees, rather than
Squamish clothing and homes.
AN
ACCURATE PICTURE OF NATIVE AMERICANS IN THE 1990s
Native
Americans make up less than one percent of the total U.S. population but
represent half the languages and cultures in the nation. The term "Native
American" includes over 500 different groups and reflects great diversity
of geographic location, language, socioeconomic conditions, school experience,
and retention of traditional spiritual and cultural practices. However, most of
the commercially prepared teaching materials available present a generalized
image of Native American people with little or no regard for differences that
exist from tribe to tribe.
TEACHING
SUGGESTIONS
When
teachers engage young children in project work, teachers should choose concrete
topics in order to enable children to draw on their own understanding. In
teaching about Native Americans, the most relevant, interactive experience would
be to have Native American children in the classroom. Such experience makes
feasible implementing anti-bias curriculum suggestions. Teachers may want to
implement the project approach (Katz & Chard, 1989), as it will allow
children to carry on an in-depth investigation of a culture they have direct
experience with. In these situations, teachers may prepare themselves for
working with Native American families by engaging in what Emberton (1994) calls
"cultural homework": reading current information about the families'
tribe, tribal history, and traditional recreational and spiritual activities;
and learning the correct pronunciation of personal names.
POSITIVE
STRATEGIES
A
number of positive strategies can be used in classrooms, regardless of whether
Native American children are members of the class.
1.
PROVIDE KNOWLEDGE ABOUT CONTEMPORARY NATIVE AMERICANS
to balance historical information. Teaching about Native Americans exclusively
from a historical perspective may perpetuate the idea that they exist only in
the past.
2.
PREPARE UNITS ABOUT SPECIFIC TRIBES,
rather than units about "Native Americans." For example, develop a
unit about the people of Nambe Pueblo, the Turtle Mountain Chippewa, the
Potawotami. Ideally, choose a tribe with a historical or contemporary role in
the local community. Such a unit will provide children with culturally specific
knowledge (pertaining to a single group) rather than overgeneralized
stereotypes.
3.
LOCATE AND USE BOOKS THAT SHOW CONTEMPORARY CHILDREN OF ALL COLORS ENGAGED IN
THEIR USUAL, DAILY ACTIVITIES
playing basketball, riding bicycles as well as traditional activities. Make the
books easily accessible to children throughout the school year. Three excellent
titles on the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico are: PUEBLO STORYTELLER, by Diane
Hoyt-Goldsmith; PUEBLO BOY: GROWING UP IN TWO WORLDS, by Marcia Keegan; and
CHILDREN OF CLAY, by Rina Swentzell.
4.
OBTAIN POSTERS THAT SHOW NATIVE AMERICAN CHILDREN IN CONTEMPORARY CONTEXTS,
especially when teaching younger elementary children. When selecting historical
posters for use with older children, make certain that the posters are
culturally authentic and that you know enough about the tribe depicted to share
authentic information with your students.
5.
USE "PERSONA" DOLLS
(dolls with different skin colors) in the dramatic play area of the classroom on
a daily basis. Dress them in the same clothing (t-shirts, jeans) children in the
United States typically wear and bring out special clothing (for example, manta,
shawl, moccasins, turquoise jewelry for Pueblo girls) for dolls only on special
days.
6.
COOK ETHNIC FOODS but be
careful not to imply that all members of a particular group eat a specific food.
7.
BE SPECIFIC ABOUT WHICH TRIBES USE PARTICULAR ITEMS,
when discussing cultural artifacts (such as clothing or housing) and traditional
foods. The Plains tribes use feathered headdresses, for example, but not all
other tribes use them.
8.
CRITIQUE A THANKSGIVING POSTER DEPICTING THE TRADITIONAL, STEREOTYPED PILGRIM
AND INDIAN FIGURES,
especially when teaching older elementary school children. Take care to select a
picture that most children are familiar with, such as those shown on grocery
bags or holiday greeting cards. Critically analyze the poster, noting the many
tribes the artist has combined into one general image that fails to provide
accurate information about any single tribe (Stutzman, 1993).
9.
AT THANKSGIVING, SHIFT THE FOCUS AWAY FROM REENACTING THE "FIRST
THANKSGIVING." Instead,
focus on items children can be thankful for in their own lives, and on their
families' celebrations of Thanksgiving at home.
Besides
using these strategies in their classrooms, teachers need to educate themselves.
MacCann (1993) notes that stereotyping is not always obvious to people
surrounded by mainstream culture. Numerous guidelines have been prepared to aid
in the selection of materials that work against stereotypes (for example, see
Slapin and Seale [1992]).
PRACTICES
TO AVOID
AVOID
USING OVER-GENERALIZED BOOKS,
curriculum guides, and lesson plans; and teaching kits with a "Native
American" theme. Although the goal of these materials is to teach about
other cultures in positive ways, most of the materials group Native Americans
too broadly. When seeking out materials, look for those which focus on a single
tribe.
AVOID
THE "TOURIST CURRICULUM"
as described by Derman-Sparks. This kind of curriculum teaches predominantly
through celebrations and seasonal holidays, and through traditional food and
artifacts. It teaches in isolated units rather than in an integrated way and
emphasizes exotic differences, focusing on specific events rather than on daily
life.
AVOID
PRESENTING SACRED ACTIVITIES IN TRIVIAL WAYS.
In early childhood classrooms, for example, a popular activity involves children
in making headbands with feathers, even though feathers are highly religious
articles for some tribes. By way of example, consider how a devout Catholic
might feel about children making a chalice out of paper cups and glitter.
AVOID INTRODUCING THE TOPIC OF NATIVE AMERICANS ON COLUMBUS DAY OR AT THANKSGIVING.
Doing
so perpetuates the idea that Native Americans do not exist in the present.
CONCLUSION
Much
remains to be done to counter stereotypes of Native Americans learned by young
children in our society. Teachers must provide accurate instruction not only
about history but also about the contemporary lives of Native Americans.
Debbie
Reese is a Pueblo Indian who studies and works in the field of early childhood
education.
REFERENCES
Derman-Sparks,
Louise. (1989). ANTI-BIAS CURRICULUM: TOOLS FOR EMPOWERING YOUNG CHILDREN.
Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. ED 305
135.
Emberton,
S. (1994). Do Your Cultural Homework. Editorial. NATIONAL CENTER FOR FAMILY
LITERACY NEWSLETTER 6:(3, Fall): 5-6.
Grant,
Agnes, and LaVina Gillespie. (1992). USING LITERATURE
BY
AMERICAN INDIANS AND ALASKA NATIVES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. ERIC
Digest.
Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and
Small
Schools. ED 348 201.
Harris,
V. (1993). From the Margin to the Center of Curricula: Multicultural Children's
Literature. In B. Spodek, and O.N. Saracho (Eds.), LANGUAGE AND LITERACY IN
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION. New York: Teachers College Press. ED 370 698.
Katz,
L.G., and S.C. Chard. (1989). ENGAGING CHILDREN'S MINDS: THE PROJECT APPROACH.
Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
McCann,
D. (1993). Native Americans in Books for the Young. In V. Harris, (Ed.),
TEACHING MULTICULTURAL LITERATURE IN GRADES K-8. Norwood, MA: Christopher Gordon
Publishers.
Slapin,
Beverly, and Doris Seale. (1992). THROUGH INDIAN EYES: THE NATIVE EXPERIENCE IN
BOOKS FOR CHILDREN. Philadelphia: New Society Publishers. ED 344 211.
Stutzman,
Esther. (1993). AMERICAN INDIAN STEREOTYPES: THE TRUTH BEHIND THE HYPE. An
Indian Education Curriculum Unit. Coos Bay, OR: Coos County Indian Education
Coordination Program. ED 364 396.
--------------------
References
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732-0616; or ISI (800) 523-1850.
This
publication was funded by the Office of Educational Research and Improvement,
U.S. Department of Education, under contract no. RR93002007. The opinions
expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of
OERI. ERIC Digests are in the public domain and may be freely reproduced.
Title:
Teaching
Young Children about Native Americans. ERIC Digest.
Document
Type: Guides---Classroom Use---Instructional Material (051); Information
Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information
Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073);
Target
Audience: Teachers, Practitioners
Descriptors:
American Indian Culture, American Indian History, American Indians, Books,
Childrens Literature, Classroom Techniques, Cultural Awareness, Curriculum
Development, Early Childhood Education, Learning Strategies, Preschool
Curriculum, Preschool Teachers, Stereotypes, Tribes, Young Children
Identifiers:
ERIC Digests, Native Americans, Project Approach (Katz and Chard),
Thanksgiving